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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to present an analytical review of the educational innovation field in the USA. It outlines classification of innovations, discusses the hurdles to innovation, and offers ways to increase the scale and rate of innovation-based transformations in the education system. Design/methodology/approach The paper is based on a literature survey and author research. Findings US education badly needs effective innovations of scale that can help produce the needed high-quality learning outcomes across the system. The primary focus of educational innovations should be on teaching and learning theory and practice, as well as on the learner, parents, community, society, and its culture. Technology applications need a solid theoretical foundation based on purposeful, systemic research, and a sound pedagogy. One of the critical areas of research and innovation can be cost and time efficiency of the learning. Practical implications Several practical recommendations stem out of this paper: how to create a base for large-scale innovations and their implementation; how to increase effectiveness of technology innovations in education, particularly online learning; how to raise time and cost efficiency of education. Social implications Innovations in education are regarded, along with the education system, within the context of a societal supersystem demonstrating their interrelations and interdependencies at all levels. Raising the quality and scale of innovations in education will positively affect education itself and benefit the whole society. Originality/value Originality is in the systemic approach to education and educational innovations, in offering a comprehensive classification of innovations; in exposing the hurdles to innovations, in new arguments about effectiveness of technology applications, and in time efficiency of education.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a field of study that combines the applications of machine learning, algorithm productions, and natural language processing. Applications of AI transform the tools of education. AI has a variety of educational applications, such as personalized learning platforms to promote students' learning, automated assessment systems to aid teachers, and facial recognition systems to generate insights about learners' behaviors. Despite the potential benefits of AI to support students' learning experiences and teachers' practices, the ethical and societal drawbacks of these systems are rarely fully considered in K-12 educational contexts. The ethical challenges of AI in education must be identified and introduced to teachers and students. To address these issues, this paper (1) briefly defines AI through the concepts of machine learning and algorithms; (2) introduces applications of AI in educational settings and benefits of AI systems to support students' learning processes; (3) describes ethical challenges and dilemmas of using AI in education; and (4) addresses the teaching and understanding of AI by providing recommended instructional resources from two providers-i.e., the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's (MIT) Media Lab and Code.org. The article aims to help practitioners reap the benefits and navigate ethical challenges of integrating AI in K-12 classrooms, while also introducing instructional resources that teachers can use to advance K-12 students' understanding of AI and ethics.

Although the use of simulation as a methodology for learning continues to grow at a rapid pace throughout all of the healthcare professions and disciplines, research in this field is still at an early stage. Increasingly, decision makers and stakeholders must see evidence that the use of such a methodology leads to desired and demonstrable learning outcomes. These include the assurance that simulation may serve as a complement and in some cases a substitute for clinical experience in improving the quality and safety of patient care. Research will be a key factor in advancing the field of simulation to the benefit of patients and healthcare professionals. The simulation community needs an improved understanding of conceptual issues and evidence for their effectiveness to guide simulation use in optimizing the interplay of healthcare professionals, technology, organizational systems, and patients. This recognition extends beyond those educators in the simulation community. In a recent publication summarizing the findings of a task force that identified priorities for medical education research based on their perceived national importance, feasibility, fundability, and amenability for multi-institutional research,1 the no. 1 research issue to emerge was to study the impact of medical school simulation learning on residents' performance. Within the simulation community, there have already been several initiatives involving systematic literature reviews, task forces, committees, and summits whose goal was to identify a research agenda for the use of simulation for learning.2–8 Leadership from the Society in Europe for Simulation Applied to Medicine and Society for Simulation in Healthcare (SSH) sought to further these efforts with a special emphasis to include broad international, multidisciplinary, and interprofessional representation. The Utstein Style Meeting process that has proven successful for catalyzing international, multidisciplinary, and interprofessional research in emergency medicine was adopted for a simulation expert meeting.9,10 The organizers of this meeting recognized that the field of simulation is broad and considered a range of research categories including research about simulation (eg, learning effectiveness and methods, engineering of anatomy and physiology, theoretical frameworks on simulation, and sociological investigation) and research using simulation (eg, human factors oriented investigation, incident analysis, and usability studies).11 While the organizers chose to focus on research related to simulation-based healthcare education, they recognized that in some instances research using simulation to study other factors (eg, using simulation to study the effects of fatigue on human performance) will be used to inform the educational focus. Within the educational domain, the overall goals were to (1) identify the state of the art of educational simulation-based research; (2) identify future directions for educational simulation-based research with headline topics and research questions; and (3) identify methodological issues when conducting educational simulation-based research and provide guidelines on reporting and publishing this research. This effort complements the SSH simulation research summit that took place in January 2011 in conjunction with the International Meeting on Simulation in Healthcare. This report has two sections: a summary of the process to develop a research agenda and a research agenda with proposed research questions. PROCESS TO DEVELOP SIMULATION RESEARCH AGENDA—UTSTEIN STYLE MEETING Selection of Participants For the selection of participants in the meeting, the aim was to build on existing collaborations and experience of simulation research experts with international, multidisciplinary, and multiprofessional representation. The organizers chose individuals with a strong research record, experience in participating in collaborative projects, and who represented key target stakeholder groups, reflecting a diversity of professional (eg, nursing, medicine, and psychology) and geographical backgrounds (eg, Europe, North America). Because the “traditional” size of Utstein Style Meetings is approximately 20 participants, and as this has proven to be a good balance between representativeness and effectiveness, a total of 20 participants (in addition to the four organizers) were invited to take part (Table 1).Table 1: Summary of Participants in the Utstein MeetingPreparation of the Utstein Style Meeting The meeting organizers, consisting of the authors of this article, planned the meeting and its structure. A deliberate decision was made to work with the knowledge and expertise represented in the group by collecting it in an inductive process so that the topics and their priorities would be developed during the meeting. However, it was recognized that collection and synthesis of prior knowledge were important elements to inform the meeting. Consequently, participants were requested to send in recommendations for five references seen as important for the theme of the Utstein Style Meeting (Appendix). Process of the Utstein Style Meeting The meeting took place in June 2010 in Copenhagen, Denmark, and began with an informal evening gathering to build an open, constructive, and trustful working relationship. Day 1—Introduction and Plenum Presentations On day 1, the meeting began with an outline about the idea of the Utstein Style Meetings in general and of this specific one. Two plenum presentations sketched the state-of-the-art and the open questions in simulation-based educational research (noting that much of the research is not grounded in a theory) and presented a model outlining the concepts and challenges in theory-based educational simulation research. The model includes a core—the conceptual, theoretical framework—that is basic to any research approach and a rough clustering of research approaches in four main categories: exploratory studies (qualitative studies, psychometric studies, and descriptive studies), experimental studies (randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies), observational studies (cohort, case-control, and associational studies), and translational studies (reviews and effect studies).12 This framework was used to guide the discussions during the meeting. Day 1—Discussion Rounds The groups were arranged to maximize the variety of expertise and, during each round, were facilitated by one of the authors. Discussion points were recorded on flip charts or using the electronic format and projection. In the first round, discussions followed a modified nominal group process.13 Each participant reflected on general topic areas that “we need to know more about” in regard to education, research, and simulation. In an iterative process, each participant suggested a new topic until no new aspects emerged. The contributions of each group were presented and collected in plenum, allowing for clarifying questions by the other groups. During this session, the organizers independently began grouping each of the topics into different themes as they were discussed. During the subsequent break period, the organizers synthesized their notes and agreed that three major themes emerged: (1) instructional design, (2) outcome measures, and (3) translational research. (Based on the charge to the Utstein Meeting and the agreed relevance of the topic, a fourth group was also formed to specifically address guidelines for reporting research on simulation and education. This report does not include the results of the fourth group as that will appear elsewhere.) In the next round, the groups discussed research problems within the topic in an open group discussion and reported the results back to the plenum. Day 2—Discussion Rounds At the beginning of day 2, the discussion round aimed to present a general outline of research questions for each topic. After that session, members of each group rotated to “critique,” “enlarge,” and “challenge” the findings of another group while two persons of each group stayed. In the following session, the original groups reconvened and refined the research questions along the challenges and newly developed ideas. Those refined research questions were subsequently presented in plenum and each briefly discussed. Day 2—Final Plenum In a final step, the plenum reflected on the implications of the discussions for formulating a general research agenda for educational simulation research and opportunities for greater international collaboration. The authors have synthesized and built upon the literature and the experts' contributions from the Utstein Style Meeting to present a research agenda relating to the three overall themes—Instructional Design, Outcome Measures, and Translational Research (Table 2).Table 2: Research Questions Grouped According to Three Main Themes of Utstein Style Meeting on SimulationTable 2: (Continued)RESEARCH AGENDA WITH PROPOSED RESEARCH QUESTIONS Instructional Design Deliberation by participants resulted in several topic questions they felt would provide focus and priority in the simulation research community. To facilitate grouping of the questions and to illustrate their interdependencies, an hourglass was chosen to represent this conceptually. Research related to learning theories and/or conceptual frameworks was placed at the top. At the next level down (neck of the hourglass), those research questions were placed that relate to resource requirements and systems challenges that often impact the theoretical application of simulation. At the bottom of the hourglass were research questions related to simulation program implementation that take into account the theoretical framework with the local resource challenges within a complex healthcare system. Learning Acquisition, Retention of Skills, and Cognitive Load It is recognized that there is a range of simulation modalities available to choose which may address similar learning outcomes. Studies grounded in context-based learning can provide guidance on the level of authenticity required for a particular competency.14 While there is ample evidence from the literature that the optimal use of a single modality such as mannequin-based simulation may lead to long-term retention of resuscitation skills and central venous catheter insertion skills,15,16 it has yet to be demonstrated whether these and other outcomes can be achieved with different, often less costly and more flexible, simulation modalities such as virtual patients or hybrid task trainers with standardized patients. The intended purpose of researching this topic is not to show superiority of one modality over another. The intent is to provide evidence for a range of options with the expectation that individual simulation programs will possess (or choose) at least a single modality that can be used to achieve a desired outcome. 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Abstract Science‐related competencies are demanded in many fields, but attracting more students to scientific educations remains a challenge. This paper uses two studies to investigate the value of using Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) laboratory simulations in science education. In Study 1, 99 (52 male, 47 female) seventh (49) and eighth (50) grade students between 13 and 16 years of age used an IVR laboratory safety simulation with a pre‐ to posttest design. Results indicated an overall increase in interest in science and self‐efficacy, but only females reported an increase in science career aspirations. Study 2 was conducted with 131 (47 male, 84 female) second (77) and third (54) year high school students aged 17 to 20 and used an experimental design to compare the value of using an IVR simulation or a video of the simulation on the topic of DNA‐analysis. The IVR group reported significantly higher gains from pre‐ to posttest on interest, and social‐outcome expectations than the video group. Furthermore, both groups had significant gains in self‐efficacy and physical outcome expectations, but the increase in career aspirations and self‐outcome expectations did not reach statistical significance. Thus, results from the two studies suggest that appropriately developed and implemented IVR simulations can address some of the challenges currently facing science education. Practitioner Notes What is already known about this topic Science‐related skills are becoming increasingly important as these are in high demand, not only in traditional science occupations, but also in other fields of work and in our daily lives. Thus, it is desirable to inspire students to pursue careers within science. According to the social cognitive career theory (SCCT), students’ educational choice goals (ie, career aspirations) are shaped by their interests, self‐efficacy and outcome expectations. Students report low levels of interest in science and several studies find that positive attitudes toward science decline with age, from primary through the secondary school years. Unfavorable attitudes toward science could be attributed to science education failing to engage students at a satisfactory level. Immersive Virtual reality (IVR) is touted for its potential to offer inspiring learning experiences that increase interest and self‐efficacy. What this paper adds A systematic investigation of how IVR laboratory simulations can increase science interest and career aspirations in middle school (aged 13 to 16) and high school (aged 17 to 20) students. Evidence that IVR‐based learning experiences can significantly increase students’ interest in science topics. An indication that an IVR‐based simulation led to a significant pre‐ to posttest increase in science aspirations among 13‐ to 16‐year‐old female students. Implications for practice and/or policy IVR‐based simulations are specifically relevant when the goal of an educational intervention is to increase students’ situational interest and social‐outcome expectations in a science topic. Provided the right instructional design, IVR might help bridge the gender difference within science education in middle school (ie, students between ages of 13 and 16). Although IVR‐based simulations can increase situational interest, longitudinal interventions are needed to create lasting effects on career aspirations in science.

This article addresses educational challenges posed by the future of work, examining “21st century skills”, their conception, assessment, and valorization. It focuses in particular on key soft skill competencies known as the “4Cs”: creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication. In a section on each C, we provide an overview of assessment at the level of individual performance, before focusing on the less common assessment of systemic support for the development of the 4Cs that can be measured at the institutional level (i.e., in schools, universities, professional training programs, etc.). We then present the process of official assessment and certification known as “labelization”, suggesting it as a solution both for establishing a publicly trusted assessment of the 4Cs and for promoting their cultural valorization. Next, two variations of the “International Institute for Competency Development’s 21st Century Skills Framework” are presented. The first of these comprehensive systems allows for the assessment and labelization of the extent to which development of the 4Cs is supported by a formal educational program or institution. The second assesses informal educational or training experiences, such as playing a game. We discuss the overlap between the 4Cs and the challenges of teaching and institutionalizing them, both of which may be assisted by adopting a dynamic interactionist model of the 4Cs—playfully entitled “Crea-Critical-Collab-ication”—for pedagogical and policy-promotion purposes. We conclude by briefly discussing opportunities presented by future research and new technologies such as artificial intelligence and virtual reality.

CONTEXT: Cognitive training has been shown to improve cognitive abilities in older adults but the effects of cognitive training on everyday function have not been demonstrated. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of cognitive training on daily function and durability of training on cognitive abilities. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Five-year follow-up of a randomized controlled single-blind trial with 4 treatment groups. A volunteer sample of 2832 persons (mean age, 73.6 years; 26% black), living independently in 6 US cities, was recruited from senior housing, community centers, and hospitals and clinics. The study was conducted between April 1998 and December 2004. Five-year follow-up was completed in 67% of the sample. INTERVENTIONS: Ten-session training for memory (verbal episodic memory), reasoning (inductive reasoning), or speed of processing (visual search and identification); 4-session booster training at 11 and 35 months after training in a random sample of those who completed training. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Self-reported and performance-based measures of daily function and cognitive abilities. RESULTS: The reasoning group reported significantly less difficulty in the instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) than the control group (effect size, 0.29; 99% confidence interval [CI], 0.03-0.55). Neither speed of processing training (effect size, 0.26; 99% CI, -0.002 to 0.51) nor memory training (effect size, 0.20; 99% CI, -0.06 to 0.46) had a significant effect on IADL. The booster training for the speed of processing group, but not for the other 2 groups, showed a significant effect on the performance-based functional measure of everyday speed of processing (effect size, 0.30; 99% CI, 0.08-0.52). No booster effects were seen for any of the groups for everyday problem-solving or self-reported difficulty in IADL. Each intervention maintained effects on its specific targeted cognitive ability through 5 years (memory: effect size, 0.23 [99% CI, 0.11-0.35]; reasoning: effect size, 0.26 [99% CI, 0.17-0.35]; speed of processing: effect size, 0.76 [99% CI, 0.62-0.90]). Booster training produced additional improvement with the reasoning intervention for reasoning performance (effect size, 0.28; 99% CI, 0.12-0.43) and the speed of processing intervention for speed of processing performance (effect size, 0.85; 99% CI, 0.61-1.09). CONCLUSIONS: Reasoning training resulted in less functional decline in self-reported IADL. Compared with the control group, cognitive training resulted in improved cognitive abilities specific to the abilities trained that continued 5 years after the initiation of the intervention. TRIAL REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00298558.

The role of improved schooling, a central part of most development strategies, has become controversial because expansion of school attainment has not guaranteed improved economic conditions. This paper reviews the role of education in promoting economic well-being, with a particular focus on the role of educational quality. It concludes that there is strong evidence that the cognitive skills of the population -rather than mere school attainment -are powerfully related to individual earnings, to the distribution of income, and to economic growth. New empirical results show the importance of both minimal and high level skills, the complementarity of skills and the quality of economic institutions, and the robustness of the relationship between skills and growth. International comparisons incorporating expanded data on cognitive skills reveal much larger skill deficits in developing countries than generally derived from just school enrollment and attainment. The magnitude of change needed makes clear that closing the economic gap with developed countries will require major structural changes in schooling institutions.

Social media comprises communication websites that facilitate relationship forming between users from diverse backgrounds, resulting in a rich social structure. User generated content encourages inquiry and decision-making. Given the relevance of social media to various stakeholders, it has received significant attention from researchers of various fields, including information systems. There exists no comprehensive review that integrates and synthesises the findings of literature on social media. This study discusses the findings of 132 papers (in selected IS journals) on social media and social networking published between 1997 and 2017. Most papers reviewed here examine the behavioural side of social media, investigate the aspect of reviews and recommendations, and study its integration for organizational purposes. Furthermore, many studies have investigated the viability of online communities/social media as a marketing medium, while others have explored various aspects of social media, including the risks associated with its use, the value that it creates, and the negative stigma attached to it within workplaces. The use of social media for information sharing during critical events as well as for seeking and/or rendering help has also been investigated in prior research. Other contexts include political and public administration, and the comparison between traditional and social media. Overall, our study identifies multiple emergent themes in the existing corpus, thereby furthering our understanding of advances in social media research. The integrated view of the extant literature that our study presents can help avoid duplication by future researchers, whilst offering fruitful lines of enquiry to help shape research for this emerging field.